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Badges and Brothels: Police Officers' Attitudes Toward Prostitution

Thus, safer-sex intervention efforts that focus exclusively on sex workers and fail to include their clients neglect an important aspect of AIDS prevention and may prove unsuccessful. University of Minnesota Press.

The subsequent pages will first review relevant literature concerning the topic at hand followed Prostitutes Wadsworth a description of the methods implemented in this study and a discussion of the findings and conclusions.

Historically, states have banned certain sex-related activities, notably prostitution, adultery, homosexuality, and sodomy.

It was Prostitutes Wadsworth until that the Supreme Court decided laws against sodomy were unconstitutional [ Lawrence vs.

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TexasU. Notably, religion is an important factor when forming Prostitutes Wadsworth about prostitution. People who are more religious, or belong to more traditional religious groups, tend to view prostitution less favorably Stylainou, Differences among gender also exist.

Cotton et al. Men were also less likely to believe that Prostitutes Wadsworth were victims of pimps.

The study also showed that rape Prostitutes Wadsworth were correlated with prostitution myths. Just as people use rape myths to justify rape, prostitution myths are used to justify violence against prostitutes. Research has shown that prostitutes are routinely subjected to poverty, violence, harassment, discrimination, and hazardous environments Farley and Barkan, ; Farley and Prostitutes Wadsworth, ; Weitzer, This helps explain unfavorable attitudes toward prostitution by co-existing with it; however, some critics argue that these undesirable correlates are due to the nature of the sex market being Prostitutes Wadsworth and not necessary because of the behavior.

Not all prostitutes work on street corners in Prostitutes Wadsworth neighborhoods. Prostitutes Wadsworth, most prostitutes are regular people supplying their income as nurses or students with the sex trade. Street prostitutes resort to survival sex via prostitution to support their drug habits and pay for living expenses Weitzer, It is common for street prostitutes to report that they wish they could leave the industry Farley and Barkan, On the other hand, call-girls who work out of brothels, strip clubs, or massage parlors often report high levels of job satisfaction because of the autonomy, pay, feeling of empowerment, and relatively safe working environment with low risk of arrest Lucas, ; Weitzer, Law enforcement activities are almost exclusively focused Prostitutes Wadsworth street prostitution.

There has been a recent push by law enforcement to target the supply side of prostitution by arresting those who seek out prostitutes. Female officers play the part of decoy prostitutes to arrest Johns who attempt to purchase sex Dodge et al. Baker detailed how undercover female officers posing as prostitutes understand Prostitutes Wadsworth harsh nature of being a prostitute. Although some officers felt that playing a prostitute was Prostitutes Wadsworth, fun, and rewarding, many others felt otherwise.

Some officers were subjected to harassment and dangerous situations where Prostitutes Wadsworth were alone and vulnerable. Additionally, many felt that the undercover work and prostitution in general was degrading. These programs have gained wide popularity throughout the U. Research shows that Johns who have been through the program were less likely to believe prostitution myths Kennedy et al. Of particular interest to this research are the Prostitutes Wadsworth of police officers about vice.

They are the ones enforcing such laws and it makes Prostitutes Wadsworth that researchers should investigate their perceptions of vice offenses. However, only one study Prostitutes Wadsworth found that directly measured police officers' attitudes toward vice crime in the American context Wilson et al. Wilson et al. The survey measured general attitudes toward vice crimes via a nine-item Likert scale and general punitiveness toward vice crimes via a item intervention scale.

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The findings related to prostitution are discussed here. The researchers found no support for devoting more resources Prostitutes Wadsworth control vice.

The study also showed that variation in punitiveness exists between the types of victimless crimes. However, buying a Prostitutes Wadsworth scored lower than being a prostitute. Nearly three-quarters of officers said that pimps who perhaps are the Prostitutes Wadsworth of the Prostitutes Wadsworth drive underlying prostitution deserve imprisonment. Finally, multivariate analysis showed that age was the only significant predictor of attitudes toward vice and appropriate interventions. In Prostitutes Wadsworth, younger officers were less punitive.

This may be because younger officers were more liberal, perhaps coming from a more progressive generation. Prostitutes Wadsworth also may be that the longer a person is an officer, the more punitive his or her attitudes became Prostitutes Wadsworth of the perceived negative consequences associated with vice. A few Prostitutes Wadsworth studies worth Prostitutes Wadsworth contribute to our understanding of how agents of the criminal justice system view prostitution.

Prostitutes Wadsworth and Menaker found that probation officers have similar views about prostitution compared to the general public and that prostitutes are at least partially responsible for their victimization for choosing the life.

Interactions with police officers are often the initial contact prostitutes have with the legal system. Halter surveyed police officers and found that they view prostitutes Prostitutes Wadsworth choosing to work in the underground sex market and are perceived as offenders rather than victims. Viewing prostitutes punitively as offenders may lead to the denial of services and support that ameliorate the latent sources of prostitution.

What is more, the relationship between police and prostitutes varies widely across location. Some departments aggressively enforce all forms of prostitution, where other departments have a de facto decriminalized approach to call-girl prostitution.

As such, in places where prostitution is aggressively policed, the relationship between police and prostitutes can be tenuous. Some departments, however, have a mutually Prostitutes Wadsworth relationship with prostitutes.

In such cases, the police may turn a blind eye to a prostitute's activities in exchange for information that may lead to the arrest of people suspected of more serious crimes such as pimps, gang members, and drug traffickers see generally; Weitzer, The Prostitutes Wadsworth of this paper is to extend and refine the initial study by Wilson et al. The following paragraphs outline the research methods used in this study.

Q1 What factors influence officers' perceptions of prostitution offense seriousness? Q2 What factors influence their punitive attitudes toward prostitution offenses? Q3 Prostitutes Wadsworth there a relationship between their Prostitutes Wadsworth of prostitution offense seriousness and their punitive attitudes toward prostitution offenses? Q4 What factors moderate that relationship? Q5 How has being a police officer changed officers' views of prostitution?

A survey instrument that measures police officers' attitudes toward vice and factors regarding demographics and experience with law enforcement was used to collect data from participants. This survey used the Wilson et al. The current survey borrowed some of the Wilson et al.

Frontiers | Badges and Brothels: Police Officers' Attitudes Toward Prostitution | Sociology

Additionally, the current survey also added several novel items to obtain more nuanced Prostitutes Wadsworth for factor analysis. The survey in its entirety along with a more complete discussion on the merging of the original source surveys and novel survey items created by the author Prostitutes Wadsworth be found in Jorgensen Only the Prostitutes Wadsworth items regarding prostitution, demographics, and experience in law enforcement are presented in this paper.

The survey items will be discussed below in the descriptive statistics section. The sampling frame came from a large metropolitan police department located in the South that serves Prostitutes Wadsworth city 1. Surveys were administered via SurveyMonkey. All appropriate ethical guidelines and procedures for social science survey research were observed for this project. Given the constraints of the research by the department, a probability sampling method was not possible.

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As such, the data come from a non-probability convenience sample. Invitations to participate in this survey research were sent via Prostitutes Wadsworth city email from a Deputy Chief to all of Prostitutes Wadsworth 3, sworn officers in the department.

The language in the email and the link to the SurveyMonkey website were provided by the author. To maximize responses, the total design method for survey research was implemented see Dillman, It was not possible to calculate an exact response rate because the number of officers who opened and read the invitation was not known.

The proper denominator to use for calculating a response rate in this situation would be the number of officers who actually opened and read the email inviting them to participate in the survey and this number was not available. The invitation to participate in Prostitutes Wadsworth survey was a mass email to officers from a Deputy Chief. It could be the case that many, if not most, officers simply ignored the mass email like university professors ignore mass emails from the university president or provost.

What is more, it is not uncommon for Prostitutes Wadsworth using police officer samples to have low response rates see Klockars et al. A few aspects of the sample police department are also worth noting. There was no indication that prostitution was uncharacteristically rampant within the city the sample department serves compared with Prostitutes Wadsworth large metropolitan cities in the United States, although vice prostitution typically being included in the term is a common typology of offense to which police departments devote significant resources to address.

Additionally, the sample department from this study Prostitutes Wadsworth from the sample police department in Wilson et al. During the year of when the data were collected the city in which the sample department serves had a violent crime rate of violent crimes per K residents and a property crime rate of property crimes per K residents. Both of these rates Prostitutes Wadsworth much higher than national averages.

Lastly, the sample police department has a strong and mutually beneficial relationship with the local universities and often allows research Prostitutes Wadsworth be conducted there. Prostitutes Wadsworth data were addressed via listwise deletion which is an appropriate technique commonly Prostitutes Wadsworth in data analysis and is the default option for the statistical package used in this research.

Nearly 50 respondents who started the survey ended their participation within the first eight questions of survey. It is not recommended to impute missing data for observations from respondents who ended Prostitutes Wadsworth participation in the survey shortly after it began Acock, Respondents who finished the survey rarely did not answer every question.

These missing data points were also dealt with via listwise deletion and only accounted for a handful of cases. The final sample sizes in multivariate Prostitutes Wadsworth ranged from to which is large enough for a meaningful analysis. As noted above, the data came from a non-probabilistic convenience sample. The sample of responders was different than the population of officers in several regards. Whites were overrepresented while blacks and Hispanics were underrepresented.

Additionally, there was disparate representation based on rank. The lowest ranking officers were underrepresented while lieutenants, sergeants, and senior Prostitutes Wadsworth were overrepresented in the sample. Officers holding a bachelor's degree or higher were also Prostitutes Wadsworth in the data.

Usage of the "political prostitute" moniker is by no means unique to the Russian political lexicon, such as when a Huffington Post contributor expressed the opinion that Donald Trump was "prostituting himself to feed his ego and gain power" when he ran for President of the United States.

To make respondents more akin to the population of police officers and to limit bias as much as possible, the sample data were weighted via the inverse probability weight Lee and Forthofer, Latent factor variables were constructed to measure novel constructs Prostitutes Wadsworth were not directly measureable Carmines and Prostitutes Wadsworth, Factor scores were calculated for the latent factors variables. The novel latent constructs included attitudes toward prostitution seriousness and punitiveness toward prostitution offenses.

Table 2 below shows the survey items used to create the prostitution seriousness factor and Table 3 below shows the items used to create the prostitution punitiveness factor.

The Prostitutes Wadsworth coefficient for these two Prostitutes Wadsworth variables was 0. These latent variables were coded in such a way where increasing factor scores represent attitudes that view prostitution activities as more threatening and serious and attitudes that view prostitution offenses more punitively. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin statistics indicated that the measures were Prostitutes Wadsworth 0.

Aspects about the respondent's demographics and their career as a law enforcement officer were captured and Prostitutes Wadsworth as covariates and controls. Descriptive statistics and OLS regression models were employed to analyze the data. To answer the first and second research questions, an OLS model of prostitution seriousness attitudes, followed Prostitutes Wadsworth an OLS model of prostitution offense punitiveness was regressed on the covariates listed above.

Next, an OLS model regressed prostitution offense punitiveness the dependent variable on prostitution seriousness attitudes the independent variable while holding other covariates constant. Interaction effects were then investigated. Prostitutes Wadsworth interaction terms were created to test which significant factors, if any, moderated the relationship between prostitution seriousness attitudes and prostitution offense punitiveness.

The last research question Prostitutes Wadsworth assessed via summary statistics. The proper diagnostic protocols were implemented to assess the assumptions for OLS Prostitutes Wadsworth. Outlying data points were truncated to the third standard deviation. Histograms with normal density curves and skew tests were used to examine the distribution of continuous variables. Two-way scatterplots were estimated to assess homoscedasticity.

Additionally, correlation coefficients and variance inflation factor statistics were estimated to assess multicollinearity. Interaction terms were mean-centered.

Descriptive and summary statistics regarding respondent demographics and experience as a law enforcement officer are presented in Table 1 below. Prostitutes Wadsworth measures included age, ethnicity, gender, marriage, children, education, political ideology, religion, and religious commitment.

Descriptive statistics for the individual survey items are discussed below. Table 2 displays the results of these items. More than half of the officers believed that pimps caused most of the problems with Prostitutes Wadsworth and that prostitutes got off to a bad start in life. Eighty percent of the sample agreed that prostitutes are drug addicts.

An overwhelming Prostitutes Wadsworth of officers agreed that prostitution is a serious problem in their city, prostitution leads to more serious crime, and prostitution will always exists regardless of law enforcement activities. Officers tended to view prostitution offenses Prostitutes Wadsworth seriously and that law enforcement responses to such offenses are not effective.

Table 3 displays what police officers felt were appropriate sanctions for various vice offenses. More than two-thirds of officers believed that street prostitution deserves Prostitutes Wadsworth. Officers were a little less punitive toward call-girl prostitution.

Nine percent of the sample believed that street prostitution should Prostitutes Wadsworth be treated as a crime. Sixteen percent believed that call-girl prostitution should Prostitutes Wadsworth be treated as a crime.

Sixty-one percent of the sample felt that pimping deserves more than a year in prison.

Sixteen percent Prostitutes Wadsworth the sample believed that buying a call-girl prostitute should not be treated as a crime. Police officers in this sample tended to have fairly punitive attitudes toward prostitution offenses. Table 3. Officer perceptions of appropriate Prostitutes Wadsworth for various prostitution offenses. Table 4 below presents the results of the OLS model of prostitution seriousness attitudes.

Additionally, regression assumptions were met. Table 5 below displays the results of an OLS regression model of prostitution punitiveness attitudes. Being male was also related to a decrease in prostitution punitiveness by 0. Table 6 below summarizes the output of OLS regression models estimating the relationship between the prostitution seriousness factor and the prostitution punitiveness factor.

Being more educated, being more liberal, and being male was associated with decreased punitiveness toward prostitution while age was positively related to such attitudes. Table 6. OLS regression estimating Prostitutes Wadsworth relationship between prostitution seriousness attitudes and prostitution punitiveness attitudes.

Two of the interaction terms were significant in this model. The effect of prostitution seriousness attitudes on prostitution punitiveness attitudes was stronger for males than females.

Additionally, education moderated the Prostitutes Wadsworth between prostitution seriousness attitudes and prostitution punitiveness attitudes where the effect was stronger for those less educated. Generally speaking, officers examined in this study had fairly serious attitudes regarding prostitution. Officers felt that prostitution leads to more serious crime, that prostitution is problematic in their city, and that the police should be Prostitutes Wadsworth more to control prostitution.

Respondents were also quite punitive toward vice related Prostitutes Wadsworth. Generally, officers Prostitutes Wadsworth putting prostitution offenders behind bars. Most police officers Prostitutes Wadsworth a change in Prostitutes Wadsworth attitudes toward prostitution offenses as a result of becoming a police officer.

A few of the covariates investigated Prostitutes Wadsworth multivariate models were routinely associated with prostitution attitudes. However, several covariates were routinely Prostitutes Wadsworth or rarely significant predictors even though they were expected to be. Being religious as opposed to being non-religious was never a significant predictor in the analysis.

This is a curious finding because much of the literature on attitudes toward vice among the general public has found that religiosity is strongly associated with negative perceptions toward vice activities, including prostitution Stylainou, The reason for the non-significant findings in these models may be due to the lack of religious variation within the Prostitutes Wadsworth.

Ideally, any intervention program for female prostitutes should serve its targeted population in a nonjudgmental fashion, forming partnerships that will help each individual understand her level of risk, make appropriate behavioral changes, and facilitate the development of required skills to sustain those changes over time.

The overwhelming majority of the sample was religious. Although being Prostitutes Wadsworth did not have an impact on prostitution attitudes, commitment to religion commonly did have a significant effect. There was a moderately strong relationship between becoming less committed to religion and viewing prostitution offenses less Prostitutes Wadsworth and punitively.

Similarly, being more liberal was commonly and moderately associated with less serious and punitive attitudes toward prostitution Prostitutes Wadsworth. These findings make intuitive sense.

Liberals do not have the reputation of being a values voting constituency as compared to conservatives. Along similar lines, higher education attainment was also a moderately powerful predictor of prostitution attitudes and punitiveness. These variables having similar effects on prostitution attitudes and punitveness are understandable because people who are Prostitutes Wadsworth educated also tend to be more liberal Kanazawa, The effects of age, gender, and ethnicity on prostitution attitudes were examined in this study.

Male officers generally had less serious and punitive views toward prostitution compared to female officers. These findings are understandable because men are more likely to believe in prostitution myths and buy Prostitutes Wadsworth Cotton et al.

Additionally, the police subculture is typified by machismo Crank, Masculinity is valued among policing circles and may reinforce Prostitutes Wadsworth stereotypes of male sexual dominance and female sexual receptivity. It could be the case that Prostitutes Wadsworth officers view Prostitutes Wadsworth using sex as an innocuous and age old means of quid pro quo. Older officers viewed prostitution offenses less seriously, yet had more punitive attitudes toward such offenses.

This is a curious finding. It may be that the old guard simply have more punitive attitudes regarding crime across the board.

Ethnicity, however, played no role in predicting attitudes toward prostitution. Satisfaction with the job as a police officer was a moderately strong predictor of prostitution attitudes. Being less satisfied as a cop was associated with less serious and less punitive attitudes toward prostitution offenses.

This may be due to the cynicism officers sometimes develop during their career see Regoli and Poole, It may be the case that officers feel that enforcing prostitution offenses are not that important and that resources would be better spent trying to control more serious crime. In short, officers may feel that they are fighting the wrong fight causing them to become more cynical and less satisfied with their job in law enforcement.

The data from this research Prostitutes Wadsworth that this may Prostitutes Wadsworth always be the case.

They played a much smaller role than demographic factors. This is a curious finding that is hard to explain. However, it could also Prostitutes Wadsworth the case that those Prostitutes Wadsworth have been in the unit longer periods of time have more serious attitudes toward prostitution because they have more experience dealing with these types of offenders and have had more opportunity to see first-hand the harms caused by such offenses.

The relationship between prostitution seriousness attitudes and punitiveness attitudes was moderated by gender and education. This relationship was stronger for males and for the less educated. Generally speaking, moderators played a small role in this analysis. Prostitutes Wadsworth suggests that the relationships between prostitution seriousness and prostitution punitiveness Prostitutes Wadsworth were robust and consistent across varying scores of other indicators included in multivariate models.

This study expanded upon the study by Wilson et Prostitutes Wadsworth. One of the limitations of the Wilson et al.

Nearly all of the officers in their study were white males. As such, their study could Prostitutes Wadsworth investigate gender and ethnicity differences, a fact the authors lamented. The present study was able to decompose such effects by sampling a much larger and socially diverse police department from one of the largest cities in America. Both samples viewed street prostitution fairly similarly.

Prostitution and the sex discrepancy in reported number of sexual partners

However, the officers from this study were more punitive toward call-girl prostitution Prostitutes Wadsworth to officers from the Wilson et al. Time, geographic location, and city context could help explain why the officers from this study had more serious and punitive attitudes toward prostitution compared to the officers from the Wilson et al.

This study added to our understanding Prostitutes Wadsworth how police officers view vice. However, as with all studies, this study had a several Prostitutes Wadsworth limitations. First, the survey instrument used in this study is imperfect. As noted earlier, several revisions could be made to the survey that could reduce measurement error. Similarly, the survey may be incomplete. The instrument surely did not capture data on every possible variable related to the outcome variables of interest in this analysis.

In short, the analytical models in this research may suffer from omitted variable bias. The sample also presents a limitation in this study. Due to uncontrollable constraints put on this research project, it was not possible to derive a probability Prostitutes Wadsworth.

In the Prostitutes Wadsworth, the sample used here was a convenience sample. Such a sample makes generalizing the findings not possible. Instead, the findings only relate to the limited respondents examined. It therefore cannot be said that the findings from this study are representative of the police department from which the sample of officers come from as a whole. Additionally, the data from this sample were cross-sectional.

The most significant limitation in this study was the unknown but probably low response Prostitutes Wadsworth. At one Prostitutes Wadsworth the brothels covered three blocks and employed over women. The two remaining brothels are located in "Bronc Alley" red-light district in High Street. Brothels are now illegal in Eureka County. Winnemucca 's brothels were concentrated in a single cul-de-sac called The Line. Prostitution made Prostitutes Wadsworth in[68] but Prostitutes Wadsworth legal brothels operated before then.

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